| What are the 4 explanations for why racial crimes occur? | 1) Biological
2) Psychological
3) Normative Explanation
4) Split Market Theory |
| What are the main points of Biological Theory? | -ethnic grouping is natural
-discrimination, prejudice, ethnocentrism is our nature
-these features will remain because they are nature |
| What are the problems of Biological Theory? | -people hurt their own ethnic group
-different groups work together in anti-racist campaigns |
| What is Primordialism? | -advanced by Van Der Berghe
-said both nature and nurture cause racism
-racism was socialized into people as well as being biological
-prejudice, racism all partly caused by genes
-(these specific genes were never identified) |
| Rushton and the 3 Races? | 1) Negroids
2) Caucasoids
3) Mongoloids |
| Describe Negroids as defined by Rushton | -biologically dispositioned toward crime
-less intelligent |
| Describe Caucosoids as described by Rushton | in the middle of Negorids and Mongoloids |
| Describe Mongoloids as defined by Rushton | -low rates of crime
-less aggressive
-more intelligent |
| Why was Rushton's work flawed? | Didn't account for other countries definition of crime. Very ethnocentric |
| What are the main points of Psychological Theory? | -frustration in life leads to aggression
-some people have authoritarian personality
-theory once prominent but now discounted
-produced the Frustration-Aggression Theory and the Authoritarian Personality Theory |
| What is the Frustration-Aggression Theory?
What are the problems of this theory? | -from 1964
-if people posses personalities then some will be aggressive and resort to violence
Problems:
-frustration poorly defined
-why do people blame skin color when frustrated |
| What is the Authoritarian Personality Theory? | some people are simply authoritarian and take their anger out on racial groups |
| What is Normative Theory? | -originating from functionalism (first proposed by Durkheim)
-when racism and discrimination is passed down from generation to generation
-when people are young they may be exposed to racist ideas from parents
-those exposed to prejudice will act discriminatory
-prejudice and discrimination can be explained by A) persons definition of situations and B) reference groups norms
-Merton suggest that discrimination influences prejudice however, this is hard to prove
1) people make decisions about when/where/who they are racist
2)Reference group norms influence racism |
| What did Robert Merton contribute to Normative Theory? | Wondered why people aren't racist even when they are exposed to it?
Why are some racist when not exposed?
-argues discrimination occurs before prejudice**
-suspects that people don't attain success so they blame on another race
therefore discrimination leads to stereotypes in order to rationalize |
| John Porter and Vertical Mosaic | -examined class structure
-defined charter groups and entrance groups
-state polices made create a vertical mosaic with layers of the charter and entrance groups |
| What are Charter Groups? | -colonized the country
-set up rules for others to follow
-English/French |
| What are Entrance Groups? | -all others who immigrated |
| Social Class Ladder (top to bottom) | English
French
Other Western Europeans
Visible Minorities
First Nations |
| Conflict Theorists on Merton | -thought the struggle to accumulate wealth was to blame for prejudice and discrimination
-Result in Chinese Head Tax, Voyage Clauses and Systemic Discrimination
"success norms" or "capitalist norms" |
| Explain the Split Market Theory | -says there are 3 groups in society
A) Business/Capitalists
B) High paid (white) labour
C) Low paid (non-white) labour
-conflict b/w B and C increases A's profit
-threatens to replace B with C |
| Sex | biological traits of men/women
ex. chromosomes, hormone level, reproductive organs |
| Gender | social, cultural or psychological traits of men and women |
| Gender Policing | ensuring others act as tradition says for men and women |
| Transgender | when gender and sex are not in alignment with societies expectations |
| Transsexual | alter body physically to match identity |
| Compulsory Heterosexuality | live in world where sexual/gender expectations and regulates and it is assumed majority of people are heterosexual |
| Alfred Kinsey | -found that sexual intimacy varied far more than people thought
-suggested it was more appropriate to think of sexuality as on a continuum |
| The Sexual Continuum (0,1,2,3,4,5,6) | 0- completely heterosexual
1- mostly heterosexual, incidental homosexual
2-mostly heterosexual, non incidental homosexual
3- equally heterosexual and homosexual
4- mostly homosexual, non incidental heterosexual
5- mostly homosexual, incidental heterosexual
6- completely homosexual |
| What is Essentialism? | the belief there is something innate about gender
something natural and normal about two sexes and two genders
-evidence for essentialism is weak |
| Evidence of Essentialism? | Brain Studies - gender is a result of men and women using different parts of the brain
Sociobiology - certain genes produce gendered difference
Freud - genders experience stages of development in different ways, unconscious mind |
| Critiques of Essentialism (7) | 1) variation in gender across cultures
2) Margret Mead and the Arapesh
3) rape rates vary widely in cultures across the world
4) societies change without and corresponding gender change
5) gender differences decreasing rapidly
6) research of sociobiology flawed (not able to identify genes, generalized averages)
7) exaggerates degree to which gender is unchangable |
| Social Constructionism | -opposite of essentialism
-argues the support for essentialism is not strong
-gender is a social construct
-social influence and power explain gender
-gender also maintained in part by wars
-Marx argued gender was accentuated by capitalism |
| Economic Inequality | -double work day (home/work)
-sex segregation
-sex typing
-glass ceiling
-non-standard work |
| Aspects of Social Inequality | Gender Stratification (men hold more power, prestige and wealth that women)
power - ability to pose one's will on another
wealth - economic resources to pay for necessities
prestige - social rank/respect |
| Why are woman in labour? | 1. increase in demand for service sector workers
2. decrease in number of children being born
3. family finances (too much, need more income) |
| Why do woman earn less than men? (4 reasons) | 1) gender differences in characteristics that influence pay rates (education, experience)
2)women are involved in sex segregated, non-standard work
3) simple discrimination
4) A general devaluation of work performed by women |
| Aspects of the wage gap | -women earned 69 cents for every dollar a man earned
- fulltime vs full time women earned 75 cents for every dollar men earned
-hour vs hour women earned 87 cents for every dollar men earned |
| Feminism Wave 1 | -beginning of 20th century
-liberal feminism
-voting, being candidates, owning property |
| Feminism Wave 2 | -1960's
-cultural feminism, Marxist feminism, socialist feminism, radical feminism
-bodily autonomy, remaining at home, beauty pressures |
| Socialist Feminism and 2 sources of oppression | 1) Capitalism
2) Patriarchy
focus on how capitalism and patriarchy sustain each other |
| Ideas behind Socialist Feminism (4) | 1) capitalism and patriarchy need to be altered or destroyed for women to be free
2) capitalists benefit greatly from women's work
3) states intervene with social programs which raise debt
4) laws of state can be changed for positive social change |
| Radical Feminism | -capitalism has little to do with female oppression
-women are oppressed because they are women and it is a male state
-the state is an enemy not an ally
-men are aggressive and need to dominate women
-arose in 1960
-feminism essentialist
-"the person is political" --> how women act is impactful on all women
-believe that the government will never help women attain equality from men |
| Intersectionist Feminism (3rd wave-now) | -oppression exists in many forms and is cumulative
-gender is a social construct
-explaining how gender is a social construct may help eliminate inequality |
| Social Imagery | how beauty norms impact women
looking better means access to better social groups
girls are harshest critics |
| Matthews 4 groups | 1) The Elite- well aware of beauty norms and live up to them, treated better
2) Wannabes- close to being elite, struggle to alter looks and lose weight
3) Life in the Middle - not interested in beauty norms, interested in other things like sports
4) The Fringe- do not live up to beauty norms, treated poorly and often marginalized |
| What did Richard Hawkins say about atheists? | They were oppressed because they are forced to deal with ideas they disagree with |
| What is Religion? | system of meaning for interpreting world, unified belief in a super natural referent |
| What are human perspectives? | often science based and human centered
ex. communism
humanist says life doesn't have meaning, we give it meaning |
| Marx on Religion (Opium) | 1. Religion and God are human creations
2. Religion is "opium of people"
3. Religion maintains unequal, exploitative society
4. Religion delays inevitable transition to communism
5. Religion will fade
6. Religious leaders are part of bourg |
| Durkheim on Religion (Holey Answer) | 1. Religion is human construct
2. Religion contributes to collective conscious
3. Religions identifies this a sacred and profane
4. Religion will continue because it is functional and informs us how to think |
| What are the functions of Religion? | -fosters cohesion
-offers support
-addresses ultimate questions
-provide social service
-legitimizes political authority
-influences social change |
| Webber on Religion (Spirit) | 1. examined religion in terms of how it effects the way we behaved
2. Says religion help shaped modern day capitalism
3.Religion creates power for some people
(did not debate existence of god) |
| Marxian Causal Chain | Capitalism ---> Religion |
| Weberian Causal Chain | Religion ---> Capitalism |
| What is Personal Religiosity? | Bibby argues that we need to consider the following to determine someones religiosity
1. Belief in God
2. Practice
3.Experience (see/speak to God)
4.. Knowledge (of the Bible) |
| What is Collective Religiosity ? | What is Collective Religiosity ? |
| What is the Organizational Approach? | Bibby assesses individuals by:
1. sources of members
2. goals of the group
3. norms/roles used to establish purpose
4. sanctions to ensure conformity
5. overall "success" |
| What are the Sources of Religiosity ? | 1. Reflection (upon ultimate questions) (not big source)
2. Socialization (family religious)
3. Deprivation (not a big cause) |
| What is Deviance ? | non normative behaviour, violation of a norm |
| What is Crime ? | Breaking the law (illegal deviance) |
| Consensus Crime | considered very harmful
harshest punishment
mala in se --> evil/bad |
| Conflict Crime | behaviour prohibited
mala prohibita |
| Formal Control | from state and institution |
| Informal Control | exerted by family/ friends |
| What is most successful type of control | self control |
| What is Social Deviance? | legal but stigmatized
ex. ex convicts
ex. mental health |
| What is Social Diversion? | how people appear to others |
| Crusaders | try to change behaviour of others
believe serious evil exists
results in moral panic |
| Moral Panics | 1. Concern - awareness a group may be harmful
2. Hostility - group becomes folk devils
3. Consensus - large # of people become concerned
4. Disproportionality - exaggerated fear
5. Volatility - arise/fade quickly |
| Pluralists | argue that laws reflect what societies deem important
everyone has say in making laws |
| Conflict Theory | bourg largely construct laws
lower class is criminalized
gross inequality responsible |
| Postmodernists | society socially constructs crime
those who generate/disseminate the news control the laws
elites have control
difference between bourg and elite
elite is those who generate news |
| Strain Theory | -grew out of functionalism
-people behave deviant when strained
-crime/deviance are result of "rising expectations and falling realizations"
-materialism and personal success
-those unable to achieve American dream adapt by deviating |
| Merton's Typology | -part of strain theory
1. Conformists - accepts amer dream, has ability to achieve it (not deviant )
2. Innovator - accepts amer dream, can not achieve it. Innovates in illegal way to achieve dream
3. Ritualist- does not want amer dream but can achieve it (child of wealthy person)
4. Retreatists - does not want amer dream and can not achieve it (retreat from society for drugs and alcohol or due to mental health)
5. Rebel - do not want goal society wants them to have also use other means to obtain goals (examples are communist or terrorist) |
| Learning Theory | if a person is exposed to crime / deviance that person will learn to accept and engage in it |
| Skyes and Matza | -believed we need to change learning theory
-thought normal people are aware of norms but can set them aside
-learn to rationalize any guilt |
| Path Diagram 1: Conformist | Motivated Defender --> Guilt --> No crime/deviance |
| Path Diagram 2: Criminal / Deviant invokes neutralization | Motivated Offender --> neutralization --> Crime/Deviance |
| Path Diagram 3: Rationalization after Crime | Motivated Offender --> Crime/Deviance --> neutralization
invoke neutralization after society makes them feel guilty |
| Techniques of Neutralization | Denial of Responsibility
Denial of Injury
Denial of Victim
Condemning the Condemner
Appear to higher authority |
| Denial of Responsibility | perpetrator says not guilty because circumstances made them do it |
| Denial of Injury | not guilty because no one got hurt or nothing was damaged |
| Denial of Victim | argues action is justifiable because victim deserved it or did something to them |
| Condemning the Condemners | deviant reacts to condemnation by pointing out flaws of condemner |
| Appeal to Higher Loyalties | says they did it, not for self interest but for a greater cause/reason/person |
| Control Theory | -ppl deviate because it is enjoyable
-people conform because they have been taught to or controlled to
-girls are more controlled than boys so girls commit less crime |
| Labelling | -people behave deviant when defined by society as such
-labelling has a measure of power that can lead to deviance |
