| Encoding? | The process by which information is transformed into a (here: long-term) memory representation |
| Retrieval | Reactivation and usages of stored memory representations by “retrieval cues” (ecphony) |
| Storage | Maintaining representation over time: thought of as a “memory trace” (engram) |
| Consolidation: | The process occurring after encoding that is believed to stabilize memory traces |
| 2 What is meant by availability vs accessibility of memories? | Available information is the information that is stored in memory.
Accessible information is the information we can actually retrieve.
Think of the tip-of-the-tongue effect. |
| What is a retrieval que? | The retrieval cue contains information that fits some aspects of the memory trace, and if sufficient, causes an interaction between the retrieval cue and the encoded memory trace (cue-dependency) For example: Mentioning of Eminem, makes me think of the concert at Voldsløkka, which makes me think of the friend i went there with. |
| What is a memory trace? | A memory trace is multi-faceted; contains information that was attended during encoding (i.e. mental representation) |
| What happens if a retrieval cue connects to a memory trace? | We create a memory reconstruction. |
| 4 The different ways of forgetting? | Permanent forgetting = Unavailability (e.g., due to decay of memory trace)
Temporary forgetting = inaccessbility (e.g., due to lack of cues) Tip-of-the-tounge The butcher-on-the-bus situation |
| What is “the feeling of knowing”? | We have the feeling that the information is available in our memory, we just cannot access it fully. |
| What is Dual-process theories? | Recognition judgments can be based on the recollection of details about previous events or on the assessment of stimulus familiarity. |
| What is involuntary (incidental) memory? | Cues encountered in everyday life evoke recollections of the past without conscious effort (Proustian Memory) |
| What are the three points of interest when studying encoding? | Encoding-specificity principle
Context-dependent retrieval
State-/mood-dependent retrieval |
| What do we know from studies on the encoding-specificity principle? | The encoding specificity principle shows that memories are linked to the context in which they are created. It states that it's easier to recall information when you are in the same context in which you memorized or studied it
(Thomson & Tulving, 1970) studied how incidental learning (not instructed to memorize, surprise testing) to study whether weak cues or strong cues are more efficient for retrieval. Weak ques being words not associated with the target word. Ground - Cold instead of Hot - Cold (Strong que). |
| What do we know about context-dependent retrieval? | That learning and studying in the same context improves performance. Baddeley famous In water - On land study. |
| What do we know about State-/mood-dependent retrieval? | That learning and studying in the same mode improves performance. Elch, E (1995) found that retrieval of words was generally better if the participant was in the same mood as when it was encoded. |
| Is frequent exposure sufficient to improve memory? | As study by Nickerson & Adams, (1979) found that people were not able to draw a believable replica of a penny. They could draw something similar, but with a lot of errors (Perhaps the episodic buffer at work?) Based on this we could say; That pure exposure, irrespective of frequency will likely not improve memory encoding/retreival |
| How can we improve memory at encoding stage? | Encoding more features (implementing more “facets” via which “cues” can access the memory trace. |
| How can we improve memory at retrieval stage? | Providing more cues to facilitate retrieval (e.g., utilize context information) |
| What is “The level of processing theory”? | The level of processing theory states that the more deeply we process information during encoding the better we will remember it.
For example, trying different approaches:Structural: Is the word written in capital letters? Acoustic: Does it rhyme with the course? Semantic: Does it fit in this sentence? Intentional: Memorise the words.
A study by Craik, F. I (1977) found that semantic and intentional memorization had the best effects. (deepest processing) |
| Why is semantic processing so effective for memory retrieval? Can you think of a few examples that prove this effect? | It seems that semantic processing results in a more elaborative encoding so that the new memory trace becomes embedded in a rich network of other traces making it more accessible for various retrieval cues.
To chess masters, a meaningful chessboard was better recalled than a completely random one. Indicating that processing material one is to memorize makes it much easier to retrieve correct information. (Chase, W. G 1973)
Also; self-generated cues resulted in a much higher recall rate than cues generated by others when trying to remember a target word. |
| What is the dual-coding theory? | That encoding information both verbally and visually improves memory. Instead of simply reading it. |
| What is the spacing effect? | The spacing effect is rehearsing spread out over time as a better than rehearsing the same amount of time in a single session (producing encoding variability). |
| What is the testing effect? | That learning is more effective if it also involves testing (=retreival) of the information and not only encoding) |
| What is Mnemonic? | It’s old greek for memory. But today the word is used as “memory aids”. |
| What are some mnemonic strategies? | Method of Loci
Categorization
Interacting images
Pageword method |
| What is the method of loci? | A familiar route is imagined and images of the items to the recaleld are linked to landmarks on the route. |
| What is categorization? | Items grouped or organized into categories will be better recalled. |
| What is Interacting images? | Vivid and bizarre images are formed of the items to be recalled interacting in some way. |
| What is Pegword method? | To be recalled items are linked by imagery to an already earned sequence list of imaginable words (One is bun, two is shoe) |
| What are the general principles of mnemonics? | Meaningful encoding (relating the items to previous knowledge)
Structured retrieval (adding potential cues to the items to aid retrieval; e.g. by mental imagery)
Practice (To make encoding automatic and very rapid) |
| How do we explain why people forget? | Encoding failure
Decay of memory trace
Retrieval failure
Forgetting cannot be explained (alone) by the decay of memory traces.
Rather, processes of interference weaken or destroy the link of retrieval cues to the memory trace (retroactively or proactively), rendering the memory trance permanently inaccessible.
Retrieval-induced forgetting (RIF) illustrates one way how the efficiency of a retrieval cue may change over time. |
| What has sleep studies shown us about decay and memory? | That decay cannot explain why we forget alone. Several sleep studies have indicated that people who sleep prior to learning have a better retention rate, then those who spent the same amount of time awake. Leading us to the phenomenon of interference. |
| What is the phenomenon of interference? | That previous learning is impaired by later learning. |
