| functions of the skeletal system | shape and support, muscle attachment for movement, protection, red blood cell production |
| flexion | decreasing the joint angles |
| extension | increasing the joint angle |
| adduction | movement of a body part towards the body's midline (ADD to the midline) |
| abduction | movement of a body part away from the body's midline |
| dorsiflexion | toes are bought closer to the shin (upwards) |
| plantar flexion | movement which decreases the angle of the sole of the foot and the ankle |
| latissimus dorsi | location: middle of the back, partially covered by trapezius
function: adduction, extension and rotation at the shoulder |
| trapezius | location: upper middle of the back
function: moving, rotation and stabilizing the scapula |
| deltoids | location: upper arm and top of the shoulder
function: moves and stabilizes your shoulder joint |
| pectorals | location: connect the front of chest with bones of upper arm, shoulder
function: moves and stabilises shoulder joint |
| biceps | location: upper arm between shoulder and elbow
function: flexion at the elbow |
| triceps | location: back of the upper arm between shoulder and elbow
function: extension of the elbow |
| abdominals | location: center of your body
function: flexion at the trunk |
| gluteal | location: buttocks
function: rotation and extension at the hips |
| hamstrings | location: back of the lower leg
function: flexion of the knee |
| quadriceps | location: front of the upper leg
function: extension at the knee |
| gastrocnemius | location: back of the lower leg
function: extension at the ankle joint (plantarflexion) |
| tibialis anterior | location: front of the lower leg
function: flexion at the ankle joint |
| agonist | the muscle that contracts to create movement (also called the prime mover) |
| antagonist | the muscle that relaxes during movement |
| fast twitch muscle fibers | contract faster, tire more easily, good for activities that require short bursts of energy (anerobic), creates a lot of force |
| slow twitch muscle fibers | contract slower, don't create as much force, don't tire as quickly, better for aerobic activities |
| pathway of air | mouth/nose passage --> trachea --> bronchi --> bronchioles --> alveoli |
| how alveoli have adapted for gas exchange | The lining of the alveoli walls also moist so the gases can easily dissolve, walls are thin so the diffusion distance is short, they have a rich blood supply so there is a steep concentration gradient |
| intercostal muscles with breathing in | ribs move up and out, intercostal muscles contract and lengthen |
| diaphragm with breathing in | contracts to become flatter |
| intercostal muscles with breathing out | ribs move down and in, intercostal muscles relax |
| diaphragm with breathing out | domes up |
| tidal volume & exercise affects | the amount of air breathed in with each normal breath, short term increases with exercise |
| vital capacity & exercise affects | maximum amount of air that can be breathed out after breathing in as much air as possible, can increase after regular aerobic exercise |
| residual volume & exercise affects | volume of air left in the lungs after maximum exhalation, keeps lungs from collapsing, doesn't change with exercise |
| minute ventilation & exercise affects | total volume of air entering the lungs in a minute, increases with exercise, measured in (l/min) |
| minute ventilation equation | tidal volume (ml) x number of breaths (per minute) |
| function of plasma | consists mainly of water to allow substances to dissolve and be transported easily |
| function of red blood cells | carry oxygen from the lungs and deliver it throughout our body, contain hemoglobin which binds with oxygen in the lungs |
| function of white blood cells | defend us against pathogens by engulfing them or creating antibodies to attack them |
| function of platelets | stop bleeding by forming a blood clot |
| role of hemoglobin in carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide | When the hemoglobin has delivered oxygen to the cells, it then becomes a magnet for carbon dioxide, then picks it up and gives it back to the lungs where it leaves the body as we exhale |
| function and structure of arteries | carries blood away from the heart, thick muscle walls, small lumen, no valves |
| function and structure of veins | carries blood back into the heart, thin muscle walls, large lumen, have valves |
| function and structure of capillaries | carries blood to and from the bodies cell, one cell thick, small lumen, no valves |
| heart diagram | heart diagram |
| function of atria | receive blood returning to the heart from the body |
| function of ventricles | to pump blood into systemic and pulmonary circulations |
| function of valves | prevent the backward flow of blood |
| flow of blood through the heart | Blood comes into the vena cava then the right atrium from the body, moves into the right ventricle and is pushed into the pulmonary arteries in the lungs. After picking up oxygen, the blood travels back to the heart through the pulmonary veins into the left atrium, to the left ventricle and out to the body's tissues through the aorta |
| stroke volume | volume of blood pumped out of the heart by each ventricle in one beat |
| cardiac output | heart rate x stroke volume AND HR (BPM) x SV (ml) |
| aerobic respiration | takes place in the presence of oxygen, oxygen combines with glucose inside living cells to release energy |
| aerobic equation | glucose + oxygen --> carbon dioxide + water |
| anaerobic respiration | converting glucose into energy without oxygen, producing lactic acid |
| anaerobic equation | glucose --> lactic acid |
| oxygen is used to convert lactic acid into | water - which can be used elsewhere in the body or excreted as urine
carbon dioxide - carried to the lungs by the blood and exhaled
a small amount of glucose - can be re-used as energy by the muscles |
| EPOC | caused when athletes use anaerobic respiration during exercise, which causes a build up of lactic acid. This then requires a high breathing rate after exercise to remove lactic acid and allow oxygen to be brought to muscles around the body. The heart rate remains high. |
| factors affecting recovery time | strength, genetics, age, gender, sleep |
| how overall strength and fitness affects recovery time | the stronger your muscles are, the quicker they will be at absorbing the oxygen needed to remove lactic acid |
| how genetics affects recovery time | some people inherit the ability to recover quickly from exercise compared to others |
| how age affects recovery time | as you get older you will generally need a longer recovery time |
| how gender affects recovery time | physically fit women have a greater resistance to fatigue than males, especially at low to moderate intensities |
| how sleep affects recovery time | good sleep helps your body recover physically and mentally |
| short-term effects of exercise | heart rate increases, breathing rate increases, sweating, fatigue, nausea |
| long-term effects of exercise | hypertropia (heart size), bradycardia (resting pulse rate), stroke volume, ability to tolerate lactic acid |
| force | is a push or a pulling action applied upon an object (measured in Newtons), increases/decreases in force can cause acceleration/deceleration |
| inertia | the resistance of an object to any change in its state of motion |
| mass | is the quantity of matter in a body, regardless of its volume or of any forces acting on it (kg) |
| acceleration | is the rate at which an object changes speed (measured in meters per second) |
| the law of inertia/newtons first law of motion | an object in motion stays in motion at the same speed and in the same direction, and an object at rest stays at rest unless acted upon by an external force |
| newtons second law of motion | an object will accelerate when acted upon by an external force the acceleration of the object is proportional to this force and is in the direction by which the force acts |
| newtons third law of motion | for every action there exists an equal and opposite reaction |
| gravity | the force that attracts the body towards the center of the earth, or towards any other physical body having mass |
| muscular force | a push or pull applied to an object provided by muscular contraction |
| air resistance | the frictional force that air applies against a moving object |
| ground reaction force | the reaction to the force that the body exerts on the ground |
| force calculation | mass (kg) x acceleration |
| forces acting upon a moving performer | gravity, air resistance, muscular force |
| forces acting upon a sprinter in the blocks | gravity, ground reaction force, air resistance |
| forces acting upon an object flying through the air | gravity, air resistance, force applied at release |
| first class lever example | nodding of the head |
| second class lever example | jumping for a ball |
| third class lever example | baseball pitching |
| basic skills | are simple skills such as throwing, catching, hitting a ball, and running |
| complex skills | are more difficult skills that require a higher level of coordination and concentration. |
| open skills | are skills that are affected by the environment. The performer must react and adjust to the situation, and this will constantly change. |
| closed skills | are skills that are not affected by the environment or the performers within in. |
| fine skills | are precise movements that require high levels of accuracy and technique. They are often small movements that require small groups of muscles such as in the fingers. |
| gross skills | are movements that use large muscle groups to produce big, powerful movements. Gross skills are usually performed by the arms and legs |
| cognitive and example | preparation stage, start to learn the new skill or technique and consciously think about what is involved and the actions you need to perform the skill (shooting too far away in basketball) |
| associative and example | practice stage, continue repeating and practicing skills and techniques so that they improve (number of misses decreases) |
| autonomous and example | automatic stage, can perform the skills naturally without conscious thought, you show control, accuracy and even flair (scoring every time unless impeded) |
| motivation | the desire required to be successful, a driving force that makes you do something and decide how much effort to put in |
| intrinsic motivation | feelings of satisfaction or well-being from doing the activity |
| extrinsic motivation | Praise from other people, at the professional level, the search for sponsorship or a better contract |
| arousal definition | energized state of readiness that motivates you to perform a task |
| over arousal affect | feeling anxious/nervous/stressed, you could be ‘psyched out’ by the opposition, you may make mistakes or not give your best performance |
| under arousal levels affect | You will not be excited or focused enough to perform at the required level |
| how optimal arousal is different for different skills | fine motor skills (such as in darts) require low levels of arousal to perform well, gross motor skills like running require high levels of arousal to perform well |
| cognitive anxiety | The mental symptoms that a performer feels such as self doubt, that can occur if the performer is in a state of under arousal |
| somatic anxiety | The physical signs of anxiety that can be termed as ‘butterflies in the stomach’. |
| 3 relaxation techniques | mental rehearsal, visualization, deep breathing |
| mental rehearsal | Running through a skill, sequence or event in your mind, in detail, using all your senses |
| visualization | ‘Seeing’ the best positive outcome for the skill/technique you are about to perform |
| deep breathing | A learned way of breathing in a deep, calm and focused way to promote relaxation as well as physical well-being |
| how relaxation techniques control arousal for all 3 | increased concentration, controlled breathing, reduced heart rate |
| agility and a sporting example | the ability to change the body position quickly and under control, basketball |
| balance and a sporting example | being able to maintain a position either static or dynamic, gymnastics |
| stamina and a sporting example | allows you to work for long periods of time with the lungs, heart and blood working efficiently to supply oxygen to the muscles, swimming |
| coordination and a sporting example | the ability to use two body parts at the same time, tennis |
| flexibility and a sporting example | is the range of movement around a joint, karate |
| muscular endurance and a sporting example | ability of your muscles to work continuously without getting tired, marathon running |
| power and a sporting example | being able to perform strength movements at speed, boxing |
| reaction time and a sporting example | the time taken to respond to a stimulus, starting pistol in a running race |
| speed and a sporting example | ability to perform a movement quickly over a distance, 100m sprint |
| strength and a sporting example | ability to exert the maximum amount of force in one go, can be explosive (weight lifting) or static (rugby players in a scrum) |
| SPORT | specificity (to sport and performer, progression (make it progressively harder), overload (the body must work harder than normal), reversibility (if we stop exercising out fitness levels decrease), tedium (training must vary to ensure motivation not boredom) |
| FITT | Frequency (how often), Intensity (how hard), Time (how long), Type (is it suitable for your sport) |
| continuous training description & example, training aim, adv, dis-adv, safety | consists of continuous activities like running, cardiovascular endurance, burns fat, no anaerobic fitness, correct footwear |
| weight training description, training aim, adv, dis-adv, safety | using free weights kettle bells resistance weights, strength, improves muscular strength, gym fees can be expensive, correct use of equipment |
| fartlek training description & example, training aim, adv, dis-adv, safety | "speed play" involves fast and slow activity over a variety of terrain or hills (running), aerobic fitness, good for sports that have a change of pace, easy to avoid challenging parts, correct footwear |
| plyometric training description & example, training aim, adv, dis-adv, safety | eccentric muscle movements like squats, power, provides more energy, high stress on muscles, need to prevent injury |
| circuit training description, training aim, adv, dis-adv, safety | complete exercises for different muscle groups at stations, strength, varied so it doesnt get boring, requires a lot of equipment and time to set up, risk of overtraining |
| HIIT description, training aim, adv, dis-adv, safety | involves periods of intense work followed by rest periods, speed, combines aerobic and anaerobic fitness, can become boring, risk of overtraining |
| ability | the qualities and characteristics a person is born with, such as speed, coordination and flexibility, that allow a person to learn or acquire skills |
| skills | a learned and practised ability that brings about the results you want to achieve with maximum certainty and efficiency |
| factors affecting skill | teaching & coaching, environment, facilities, arousal conditions, age & maturity, culture, motivation, anxiety |
| age & maturity | how young a person is can affect how good they become. Starting younger provides more time to become an expert. |
| arousal conditions | someone who is calm and enjoys low arousal may perform well in shooting or archery, people with higher arousal levels may prefer football or boxing |
| facilities | the kinds of facilities that are available and accessible will impact on the sports that are offered |
| environment | where you live will affect your choices, if you live where the is snow you are more likely to ski |
| teaching & coaching | the quality and provision of coaching available will affect the skill level, Andy Murray left the UK for Spain to develop his tennis skills |
| anxiety | if you see the skill as difficult, it may stop you improving. The coach must break the skill down to help motivate you |
| motivation | this will influence the skills you choose and how well you master them. A desire to succeed will encourage you to practice and seek new challenges |
| culture | background can impact upon the skills you learn. A person with the ability to play striking sports is likely to play baseball in the USA, but cricket in India |
| accurate | achieving precise, reliable movements |
| consistent | performing to a high level every time with control and quality |
| fluent | using movements that are quick, smooth and flowing, without hesitation or stumbling |
| coordinated | moving different parts of the body together with efficiency and control |
| aesthetically pleasing | a display that looks good to the eye of the spectator, judge or coach |
| goal directed | focusing performing on a specific target and being determined to achieve that target |
| decision-making | is when the information is analysed by the performer, so they can choose the most appropriate response |
| output | decision made and then acted upon |
| feedback | information that is received about the output or decision |
| single channel hypothesis | if we do more than one thing at once, our overall performance can suffer as the brain struggles to process all the information coming in |
| short term memory | limited capacity, only there for a short amount of time |
| long term memory | unlimited capacity, there for a long time |
| intrinsic feedback | information that comes from within, like your emotions thoughts and muscles |
| extrinsic feedback | comes from an external sources like coach or a teacher |
| knowledge of performance | analysing your quality of movement or use of techniques e.g. if you landed gymnastics vault well |
| knowledge of results | analysing the outcome of your performance, e.g. the score |
| importance of receiving feedback | allows the performer to identify what they have done well and what needs to be improved |
| 4 types of guidance | visual, verbal, manual, mechanical |
| verbal and example | guidance that you hear e.g. coach telling you instructions |
| visual and example | guidance you can see e.g. coaches demonstration |
| manual and example | supporting the movement through touch, useful for cognitive and associative learners, e.g. a coach may touch the performer to show them |
| mechanical and example | use of a device to support the performer, useful for cognitive so performer is less anxious e.g. a float for swimming |
| goal | a desired aim or outcome; something that you are trying to achieve |
| SMARTER goals | specific (make it detailed), measurable (measure if you can achieve it), agreed (you and your coach agree on that goal), realistic (a goal that is too difficult can demotivate you), time-phased (planned ahead), exciting (can prevent you from getting bored), recorded (goals should be written down) |
| how can goal-setting reduce anxiety | the performer will be more confident going into a competitive situation. Having control of a situation has been shown to play an important role in reducing stress and anxiety |
| introvert | reserved, and usually prefer taking part in individual sports |
| extrovert | enjoy interaction with others and are aroused by others, enthusiastic/talkative |
| introvert characteristics | get energized by being on their own, prefer taking part in sports by themselves, perform best at lower levels of arousal |
| extrovert characteristics | energized being with others, prefer team sports, perform best at higher levels of arousal |
| sports for introverts | golf, tennis, swimming |
| sports for extroverts | hockey, netball, volleyball, rugby |
| leisure time | time spent away from work and free from obligations |
| physical recreation | a physical activity or pastime that promotes health, relaxation and enjoyment |
| play | to take part in a sport or activity for enjoyment |
| sport | an activity that involves physical exertion and skill, either as an individual or as part of a team, competing against another person or team |
| factors which influence what recreational activities people do in their leisure time | age and health, interests, facilities, peer influences, where you live, social circumstances, family influences |
| age and health | older people may choose less demanding activities such as walking football and bowling |
| interests | more likely to take part in activities that spark your interest. If you like being outdoors, you're more likely to do road cycling |
| facilities | the facilities and standard of facilities available affect the activities you would take part in |
| where you live | climate and traditions/cultural activities you're exposed too |
| social circumstances | sometimes you cannot afford to do all activities available to you |
| family influences | you're more likely to take part in those activities if your family is interested, encouraging, can transport, and they fit in with family culture |
| factors that influence the growth in leisure activities | advances in technology, improvements in healthcare, better awareness of health benefits, wider media coverage, improvements in travel methods, reduced cost of equipment, more leisure facilities, increase in leisure time |
| sports development pyramid stages | foundation, participation, performance, elite |
| foundation stage | consists of beginners and younger people, involves mass participation activities, involves learning and developing basic skills such as running, found at school age in PE lessons or ‘mini sports’ activities |
| participation stage | taking part in organised sporting activity at clubs and leisure centres, being with friends and like-minded individuals who are there to enjoy playing sport, having a more structured environment |
| performance stage | focus is on developing the level of performance towards the elite level, participants will concentrate on one or two sports to develop specific skills, training and competition start becoming more regular and important, emphasis is more professional over fun |
| elite stage | performers move from regional to national squads, high levels of support to prepare performers, lead a lifestyle designed to maintain high levels of fitness, most likely be professional |
| types of sponsorship | financial support, clothing/footwear/equipment, provisional of specialist activities |
| advantages of sponsorship to the performer/team | they receive free clothing equipment and a payment, athletes can concentrate on training and playing and not have to worry about money |
| disadvantages of sponsorship to the performer/team | performers are often required to spend time at a sponsors' event instead of resting or training for their next game |
| advantages of sponsorship to the sponsor | being linked to success can raise their profile and status and increase the sales of their products |
| disadvantages of sponsorship to the sponsor | have to provide equipment/clothes to the performer, and it can be expensive, can give the brand a negative image if something bad happens with its performer |
| advantages of sponsorship to the sport | sport receives additional funding on top of admissions and competitions entries which allows them to develop coaching and community schemes |
| disadvantages of sponsorship to the sport | sponsors tend to prefer high profile televised sports with big stars, minority sports find it much more difficult to attract sponsors |
| advantages of sponsorship to the audience and spectators | they benefit when sponsors money is used to improve spectator facilities, there may also be direct benefits in terms of more access to watching sport |
| disadvantages of sponsorship to the audience and spectators | sponsors can exert a strong influence on a sport like by dictating rule changes or timing of events |
| types of media coverage | television, internet and social media, print, radio |
| advantages of media coverage to the performer | makes it easier to attract sponsorship, performers can become role models to develop their reputation and promote themselves |
| disadvantages of media coverage to the performer | increased exposure can lead to a loss of privacy even attacks on performers and their families |
| advantages of media coverage to the sport or event | influences rule changes to benefit the sport, attendance increases because people want to watch their favourite sport/team, increased money for pay prizes equipment and coaching |
| disadvantages of media coverage to the sport or event | some sports get more exposure than others, become dependent on the money being bought in by the media, overexposure can lead to loss of interest |
| advantages of media coverage to the audience/spectators | can get a better view of the action, can gain more knowledge from media experts/analysis |
| disadvantages of media coverage to the audience/spectators | pay-to-view can mean it's hard to access some events, changes of event times could be made to suit the media, event entry can become expensive |
| advantages of being a host nation | stadia and training facilities, home advantage, national pride, tourism, economy and employment, legacy implications, infrastructure |
| stadia and training facilities | improved sports facilities are built that can be used both before and after the competition |
| home advantage | more spectators are cheering home performers on, performers can also benefit from competing in a familiar environment and climate |
