| Explain the menge olsen model | Menge-olsen model assumes that the succesbility for stress is greater for prey than predator. Therefor consumer control's relative importance increases with increasing abiotic stress? |
| Explain what lecithotrophic, planktotrophic and direct development means? | Planktotrophic - go up and eat the plankton
lecithotrophic - lecithotrophy means feeding on egg yolk or other materials put in the egg by the mother; these larvae do not feed on anything else until after they settle to the bottom and become nonplanktonic juveniles
direct development - |
| benthos vs benthic | Benthos - bottom living animals (sessile lifestyle is normal)
benthic - the bottom environment |
| Put these habitats in order from top to bottom:
Abyssal, Sublitoral, Hadal, Supralittoral, Bathyal, Litoral, | Supralitoral
Litoral
Sublitoral
Bathyal
Abyssal
Hadal |
| What types of hard and soft bottom can you find in the different zones- intertidal, subtidal - eufotic and Bathyl/abyssal/hadal? | Se billedet |
| Where have most ecological concepts been developed, with greates variation of abiotic factors and greatest biodiversity | Intertidal |
| Name 5 abiotic factors that tides affect | Dessication (udtøring), Temperature, light, salinnity, waves |
| What are 5 main groups of traits used to clasify | body size (micro, meio, macro, mega)
position relative to substratum
mobility
feeding mode
life-history (longevity, life-cycle) |
| What are the ways to clasify acoording to position relative to substratum | in - inside substratum (clams, polychates, tubes etc)
epi - on substratum ( crab, sea starr, oyster etc)
hyper - above (living closely connected to benthic) |
| What are the ways to clasify according to functional traits? | sessile - fixed to substratum (algee, barnecles)
hemi-sescile - limited mobility (mussels (byssus vs. foot),tube-dwelling polychaets)
mobile - walk, swim, craw (crabs, flatfish, mollusks, worms) |
| What are the ways to clisify according to feeding mode? | Grazers - herbivorous (limpets, periwinkles, chitons)
Predator - carnivorous ( crabs (crushing), dogwhelks(drilling), polychaets)
scavanger - omnivours (whelks, ophiurids)
filter-feeder - herb/carnivours (blue mussels)
deposit feeder herb/carnivours, filter sedimen basicly (polychaets) |
| what are the ways to clasify according to life history? | - Age at first reproduction
- number of times breeding (semelparous -> once; iteroparous -> multiple)
- life span - annual, perennial, pseudo-perennial (Sargassum)
- Dispersal (movement from birth site to reproduction site or one breeding site to another)
- K and r characteristics |
| What are some ecological consequences of density water > density air? | isolated populations are rare in the benthic
benthic systems lack pollinators (stuff can go through the water)
parentel investment is lower in benthic communities. |
| Name an example of bento-pelagic coupling in relation to benthos | Most marine benthic live has a pelagic episode
this way energy annd matter is transfered between benthic and pelagic zone. |
| Types of propagule dispersal: Explain what lecithotrophic, planktotrophic and direct development means?
What can you say about egg size, egg number, yolk reserve and hatching time? | Planktotrophic - planktonic larvae that feed on planktonic organisms in free waters
lecithotrophic - feeding on egg yolk until they become planctonic
direct development - no metamorphosis |
| What steps are there in the colonization sequence? | - Presettlement phase: supply, survival, dispersal
- settlement phase: establishment of contact with substrate
- Post settlement - competition
- (recruitment) - Recruitment is different from settlers. They are not yet adults, but they have survived and are present. Multiple definitions, very vauge. |
| How do larvae choose a place to settle? | They use global cues, regional cues and site specific cues
Global cues: are used to find a good site. They could use cues from light (to get to current to get transported to suitable area), pressure and so on
Regional cues: when they find a suitable area they use regional cues to find the right spot. could be chemical cues. for instance barnecles like spots where barnecles are already present - areas where they are already is better for survival. I would argue that sexual reproduction also.
Site specific cues: Very local cues such as texture of substrate (for instance barnicles don't like too smooth surfaces), light, contact chemicals.
larvae have a certain time where they can settle if they run out of time they will settle even if conditions are not great |
| Barnecle settlement succes can vary a lot from year to year - why? | The succes in settlement can vary a whole lot – why?
- Environmental conditions in moment of settlement. Such as temp, waves
- Species interactions
- Physical stress in the moment where adults produce the larvae |
| What is the difference between intraspecific competition and interspecific competition? | Intraspecific: competition between individuals of same species
interspecific: competition between individuals oof different species |
| What is kendetegnene for the post settlement phase | Competition
interactions (competition) between adults and just settled individuals |
| When is competition the highest? | Competition is highest when abiotic stress and predation is medium. Environmetal stress dictates relative importance of predation(negative relation), competition and abiotic stress(positive relation). If we know about environmental stress we can easier determine where we are on the graph.
Predation is highest in no abiotic stress and same goes for herbivory - måske tænk lige over den der menge olsen model og vend tilbage |
| Temperature in the intertidal | Over very short distances they can be great differences in temp. Therefor high biodiversity because of many nieches |
| How is temperature different in different bottom types and zones? | Mud temp more stable than rock. Wtaer gets trapped in interstital space.
Sediment: A lot of species in the sediment will try to live in a certain depth. Still connected to surface but in more stable environment.
Rocky intertidal.
Rocky intertidal: Almost 30 degress difference in no time. 20 degree dif between no cannopee and under cannopee. Very stresfull.
Intertidal:In summer water temp is lower than air temp.
Winter water is higher than air. Those at the intertidal fase the strongest viariation in temp. Desication (dry out) is the biggest problem in upper intertidal. |
| Name some adaptations to desication in the intertidal zone | Adaptions to desiccation :
- Behavioral response – find shelter where temp doesn’t vary
- Others tolerate it and can loose a lot of water
- Facilitation(positive interaction between species) – live under canopee for instance. |
| Name some temperature adaptations | Sculptering - increase surfacearea and loose heat.
Colour – light colours will reflect more heat.
Body size – the bigger you are the lower volume.
Controlled evaporation (barnecles have porotios pores). The cooling of the evaporation is extented – its like and aircondition.
Minimal contact to substarte with for instance mucus.
Gigantism – very large organisms because of cold. Lower metabolism – live longer on they grow more |
| What are some likely consequences of ocean warming for benthic animals/benthos ? | Benthic animals are generally poikilotherme
When temperature changes new species will have max performance %. Will decide interspecific(mellem arter) competition and which species do better.
Consequences:
- Many animals will omve towards the poles and away from equator
- Phenology (timing of biological events) will also change.
- could see adaptations to higher temps with heat shock proteins and so.
- perish (bleaching of corals) :( |
| What are some latitudal and precepitation trends on salinity (where is salinity highest)? | Areas with high levels of precepitation vs evaporation has a bit lower level of salinity.
Higher levels will be found where evaporation > precepitation.
Highest a bit away from the equator
Coasts fresher than offshore |
| What is different between intertidal and subtidal zones according to salinity?
When does salinity go up and down? | Intertidal zone is extreme environment because salinity can go a lot up and down.
Salinity goes up when temp is up bc of evaporation
Rainy season – more nedbør - lower salinity cause of runoff from rivers also. these two are also mostly for near shore habitats. |
| What is production and species richness like in estuaries?
What does eurohaline mean and what does stenohaline mean | Few species but at high density - high production.
more eurahaline than stenohaline species
Eurohaline - can tolerate wide range of salinity
stenohaline - can only tolerate a norrow range of salinity |
| Salinity adaptations name them ya bish | -Eurohaline (can tolerate wide range of salinities) can be divided up tinto:
Osmoconformer: Internal osmolarity matches sorroundings
Osmoregulater: has the same internal osmolarity no matter the sourroundings.
- behavioral adaptations: move away or retreat into shells.
- less reproduction
- thinner shells
these two are because osmoregulating is very energydemanding. |
| What is ocean acidification? | Partial pressure of CO2 in atmosphere increases – more CO2 enters ocean and makes carbonic acid which becomes bicarbonat and then carbonate which all in all creates 2 protons. Ocean therefor becoming more acid |
| Who is especially negatively affected by ocean acidifaction? | Groups of phyla than can be challanged:
Especially groups with shells and calcium carboante skeletons, corals
Corals bivals, gastropods, echinoderms.
^ have shells that can be dissolved.
The progras is global so the animals cant really escape.
For animals like barnecles it seems like they are more affected by temp shifts than acidification.
Phytoplankton might benefit |
| Where will pH change the most in the future?
Where will organisms have the hardest time coping with changes? | In coastal areas pH will variate a lot more.
Organisms living close to coast already experince selection on acidification because of variyng pH. Therefor open water organisms probably will be more affected even though the change here is smaller. |
| What effects will the changing pH and temperature have on algee cover on bottom. How will this influence kelp? | No CO2 effect. But big effect of temperature
Interactive effetc: the effect of acidification has to be seen with temperature. Temp with CO2 has an interactive effect elevated CO2 + elevated temp -> biggest effect!
Bigger temp and CO2 -> more algee cover on bottom.
This is bad news for kelp since kelp is most succesfull in the abscence of algee cover. |
| What roles do waves play?
What adaptations can be found to waves for animals and algee. | Waves can influence zonation - zome species can be found much higher up when there are waves.
Of course affects coast more
Can cause mechanical stress
Adaptations animals:
Waves can affect morphology - wave adapted species are more flat/ less upright.
Attachment is very efficient on vawy places.
Waves can also influence body size - smaller
foot size - bigger foot better at handeling waves (can have phenotypica plastesity - bigger foot in more exposed areas)
behavior:
huddeling to cope with waves
finding shelter
Algee/kelp adaptatiions:
Flexible stipe is an adaptation to waves.
Stiff stype is better for light.
Both gradient in wave xposure and gradient in light. Two conflicting factors algee have to deal with. |
| what abilogical factors can waves influence? | Sediment size, slope, oxygen levels |
| What are different forms of sediments found in ocean? | Terrigenous - from land (Land erosion be rivers og glaciers, Can also be from wind.)
Biogenic - from organisms (silicius(diatoms), calcareous(corals, mullusk shells etc)
Hydrogenous - from chimical precipitation
Cosmogenous - from space
coastal sediment is mostly terrigenous
ocean sediment is mostly - biogenic from radiolarians and forams |
| How do different grain sizes have different implications? | The organisms living in the sediment has a lot less variation in salinity – more stable environment.
This is because the grains can trap water for some time.
Also effect how much POM in sediments. If retention time is higher there is more available.
Grain size determiens composition of species.
Mesopsammon – organisms that live in between grains.
these animals are more affected by particle size and slope than wave action |
| Which effects do waves have on soft bottom? | Sand on top mud later. Mud on beaches are only places with no wave exposure
Animals in sediment are more affected by particle size and slope than wave action |
| Patters of oxygen | High in polar
Low in coastal
A lot in the vertical with exception of deap sea with little excange
oxic - lot of oxygen
hypoxic - not a lot
anoxic - no oxygen
Very fine sediment like mud has less oxygen because of less exchange of water. High organic content makes less oxygen.
bioturbation - enhances oxygen levels. |
| Adaptations to oxygen | Epidermal respiration (skin breathing)
reduced activity
lung formation
siphonal nets - prevent clogging
gill cavities |
| Zonation | Different layers which are mostly dominated by one species
High abiotic stress levels
Biotic stress from competition
Realise niche – smaller than fundamental niche – it’s the place where the two niches overlap. The realised niche therefor gets smaller.
Predation can also lead to zonation.
Settlement can lead to sonation gregaius settlement (living in heards)
Light – different pigments for algee
Pressure can also be a driver
Chimichals – coral larvae selected for water that comes directly from reaf because of cues that indicate good conditions. But might not lead to zonation.
Tides height could also be one.
Competition |
| Which algee can live the deepest and why? | red algee
it is red and therefor adapted to not use red which is only in the top
check the statistics |
| what is irradance? | fotons * m^-2 *s^-1 |
| define competition?
When is competition highest? | interaction among organisms
for an essential resource in short supply
Medium amount of environmental stress |
| Name different types of competition | First of all there is interspecific (between species) and intraspecific(same species)
Then there is Interferance and exploitation
Interferance - direct interaction between competators about acces for resources.
- fight for space
- fugitative toxins
- clones to take up space
exploitation - more like a race. Be the first to use up the resource
- utilize renewable resources
- preemptive occupation of space
- overgrowth |
| Give an example of how interspecific interferans competition can affect zonation | The idea is one species is best suited for one niche the other is best suited for another niche and in the place where the niches will overlap one will outcompete the other. See picture for good example |
| When does competition and when does fasilitation prevaill? | Competition - low levels of environmental stress
fasilitation - high levels of environmental stress |
| Deep sea | High biodiversity low density of animals. Im not sure about competiton (find it out) |
| What is amensalism give an example | amensalism - ecological interaction between two species which is bad for one of the organisms, the other one is unaffected. deposit feeders can **** with suspension feeders when they eat. they stir up the sediment and that is not good for the susension feeders trying to filtrate the water. |
| What is epibiosis | one organism growing on another
ebibiont - the one growing on the other
basibiont - the one getting grown on
extented phenotype because now the organisms getting grown on has characteristics beond its own penotype
happens more in water because dentity is so big |
| what benifits and disadvantages can epibionts and basibionts have from epibiosis? | Benifits for epibiont:
- better irradiance for algee epibionts
- more water velocity for filter feeders like barncles
Disadvantage for epibiont:
- trophic competition with basibiont
- environmental changes if host migrates
Disadvantages for basibiont and also both in manyy cases:
- if booth are food for same predator (shared doom)
- also musle covered by barnecles are easier to crush for crabs
- competition with epibiont (exploitation)
- competition for nutrients (algee)
- reduced reproductive output
benifits for basibiont:
- Associational defence (protection gained from living in close relation to different organism) |
| What is commensalism?
What it Mutualism?
What is antagonism? | commensalism, in biology, a relationship between individuals of two species in which one species obtains food or other benefits from the other without either harming or benefiting the latter (+/0)
Mutualism: both benefit (+/+)
Antagonism: one benefits on the behalf of the other (+/-) |
| What are the different typpes of relations between epibiont and basibiont? | Commensalism:
(+/0) good for one the other one doesnt care.
Mutualism:
(+/+) eg anomone growing on crab benifits crab with food and gives anemone protection.
Antagonism:
(+/-) for instance predation or herbivory - consumption
competition:
(-/-) eg for trophical niche/food barnecles on mussle |
| Name some benefits of epibiosis | Benifits for epibiont:
- better irradiance for algee epibionts
- more water velocity for filter feeders like barncles so superior competition for food
benifits for basibiont:
- Associational defence (protection gained from living in close relation to different organism) |
| name some disadvantages of epibiosis | Disadvantage for epibiont:
- trophic competition with basibiont
- environmental changes if host migrates
Disadvantages for basibiont and also both in manyy cases:
- if booth are food for same predator (shared doom)
- also musle covered by barnecles are easier to crush for crabs (associational susceptibility)
- competition with epibiont (exploitation)
- competition for nutrients (algee)
- reduced reproductive output |
| explain these two words:
associational susceptibility
Associational defence | associational susceptibility - experiences greater herbivore damage or predation due to living in association with another species
Associational defence - protection gained by an organism from living in association with another species |
| What are (predator) density dependent effects? | if relation between organisms rely on the density of the different organisms
for instance associational resistance where epibionts can enhance basibiont survival
or if you change the density of a predator then the prey might eat the predator when they are small and the predator - prey relationship has changed. Like with cod and herring and the picture |
| What is keystone predation | When the prescenece or activity of a single predator species has a disproportionate influence on the structure and functioning of an entire ecosystem. Like the king crab i think |
| What is succesion?
What is true for early pioneers and late arrivals? | Succession in biology refers to the gradual and predictable process of change in the species composition and community structure of an ecosystem over time.
Early pioneers - good colonizers but inferior competitors
Late arrivals - bad colonisers but good competetors.
Yoy basicly know when they are settling that the early pioneers will start of strong but then the late arivals with come and compete |
| What is the net effect of a species interaction | Direct effects + indirect effects |
| What is a trophic cascade? | A trophic cascade is a phenomenon in ecology where changes in the abundance or behavior of one species at a particular trophic level in a food chain or food web lead to indirect effects on multiple other trophic levels
for instance killer whales eataing sea otters who then no longer control the sea urchin population which then eat all the kelp away which has massive effects on the rest of the ecosystem |
| Explain the menge olsen model | Menge-olsen model assumes that the succesbility for stress is greater for prey than predator. Therefor consumer control's relative importance increases with increasing abiotic stress? |
| Explain the difference between Menge-Olsen and Menge-Sutherland model | Menge-olsen model assumes that the susceptibility for stress is greater for prey than predator. Therefor consumer control's relative importance increases with increasing abiotic stress
Menge-Sutherland on the other hand assumes that susceptibility for stress is greater for predator than prey. Therefor consumer contol's relative importance decreases with increasing abiotic stress |
