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level: Level 2

Questions and Answers List

level questions: Level 2

Question	Answer
The process of carcinogenesis involves 3 stages:	1. Initiation phase 2. Promotion phase 3. Progression phase
→ Defined as stable and heritable change → This is a rapid, IRREVERSIBLE process that can result to carcinogen-induced mutational event	Initiation phase → The initiating agent or toxicant will interact with the normal cell → it will cause DNA damage or alteration of DNA structure (mutation) → then it will become initiated cells → There are instances/ processes that the body can initiate repair on DNA level (excision repair, nucleotide repair, recombinational repair) → However if it is beyond repair → The initiated cell cannot be fixed. We cannot reverse the initiated cells
(INITIATION PHASE) 3 fate of initiated cells:	1 REMAIN static and non-dividing state 2 possess mutation that are incompatible with normal functions → As a defense of the body, it may initiate apoptosis or kill the initiated cells itself 3 undergo cell division resulting to proliferation → It may enter or proceed to the promotion stage
1 → A process that involves a selective clonal expansion of initiated cells to produce or become preneoplastic focal lesion → The exogenous and endogenous particles that usually operate at this stage is called the tumor promoter 2 → can change the gene expression which can lead to proliferation (continuous) or inhibition of apoptosis process → Dose and frequency dependent → Renders organ specific effect	1 Promotion phase 2 Tumor promoter → Reversible process in term of removal of promoting agents or tumor promoter → that results to focal cells or focal lesions returning to a single initiated cells
→ It involves conversion of benign preneoplastic lesions into neoplastic cancer/ malignant neoplasm because of increased DNA synthesis and cell proliferation in preneoplastic lesion → It also leads to further damage or mutation due to genotoxic events → Irreversible in neoplastic formation whether the lesion or neoplasm is benign or malignant	Progression phase
1 tumors that can spread beyond the limit of the original organ where it comes from and to other organs of the body. 2 malignant tumor that may press on optic nerves and cause loss of vision	1 malignant tumors 2 pituitary tumors
1 Cancer cells move and invade nearby tissues, organs. this is called __ 2 cancer cells spread to further away organs by means of blood or lymph circulation. this is called __	1 local spread 2 systemic spread
happen when the cell duplicates its DNA prior to cell division and makes mistakes. These damages are usually detected and repaired BEFORE the cell can divide but sometimes, some of them may be ignored and transferred to daughter cells	Mutations