Kanter's structural explanation of power and influence (minorities and tokens)

(Advanced power framework) Kanter found that in many companies, women are either a minority or alone (a token), which has consequences for how both the majority and minority acts. 1. A minority/token receives a lot of (negative) attention: When a man performs badly, it's because he himself is bad. When a woman performs badly, it's because women are bad. 2. There is a contrast between minorities and majorities: The majority reinforces their structures when a token is implemented. A macho culture filled with men becomes even more macho when a token woman is introduced. 3. A token either assimilates or distances themselves: For example, a woman assimilates to macho structures in order to be accepted, showing "loyalty" by distancing herself from other women. This illustrates how increased assimilation can lead to less equality --> Assimilation effect (one woman "protects" the majority (men) from other women in the group. Recruitment of a token woman can thus lead to more inequality (HR would suggest going toward meritocracy is good, but power framework suggests that if it results in token individuals, less meritocracy can be the result.) Gender theory: Token men don't face glass ceilings, they are helped by "glass elevators". Why is this? We need knowledge of norms and patriarchal structures to fully understand, but can be supplemented by Kanter.