Bio 2107
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109 questions
| 🇬🇧 | 🇬🇧 |
| A scientific discovery that isolates specific cell components so that their function can be studied and learned from... | Cell Fractionation |
| A eukaryotic cell houses it's DNA where?.. | Nucleus -- had a double membrane |
| A prokaryotic cell houses it's DNA where?.. | Nucleoid -- no membrane around |
| What is the purpose of the endomembrane system? | To synthesis proteins and transport them to their respective organelles |
| What does the smooth reticulum do? | Makes lipids, metabolizes carbs, detoxifies drugs and poisons as well as phospholipids, oils and steroids |
| What does the golgi apparatus do in a cell? | Its a center for manufacturing, warehousing, sorting and shipping |
| A sac of hydrolytic enzymes that help an animal go through the digestive process of eating.. | Lysosome |
| What does phagocytosis do to a cell? | It opens a food vacuole that fuses with a lysosome enzyme that helps the animal metabolize macromolecules. |
| How can a lysosome be involved in autophagy? | The lysosome will attach to the outer membrane of the vesicle, digesting the macromolecules and returning the organic monomers to the cytosol for RESUSE. this is what autophagy means. REUSE/RECYCLE |
| In what are contractile vacuoles found and what is their function? | To pump excess water out of the cell to maintain the appropriate concentration of ions and molecules inside the cell |
| What does mitochondria do?.. and no.. it's not just the power house of the cell | Sites of cellular respiration, using oxygen to generate ATP by extracting energy from sugars, fats, and other fuels |
| What do chloroplasts do? | Convert solar energy to chemical energy by absorbing sunshine and using it to synthesize new organic compounds |
| Where can DNA be found other than the nucleus? | Mitochondria & chloroplast |
| Where and what are cristae? | Found in the mitochondria and separate the inner and outer membrane from one another |
| Where and what are stroma, thylakoids and grana? | Stroma: fluid filled space in chloroplast where the thylakoids and grana are found Thylakoids: convert light to energy -- very critical Grana: the stalks over thylakoids |
| Glyoxysomes.. what are they? | They are specialized peroxisome -- peroxisome are enzymes that have the ability to break down a hydrogen peroxide molecule into just water.-- that change the fatty acids into sugars that can then be used as energy |
| What does the cytoskeleton consist of?.. | The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending through the cytoplasm that provides mechanical support and maintains the cell’s shape |
| The cytoskeleton consist of three types of fibers, what are they and what are their purpose? | Microtubules shape and support the cell and serve as tracks to guide motor proteins Microfilaments have an ability to branch, bear tension and resist pulling forces within the cell Intermediate filaments purpose is to bear tension near the nucleus and it's lamina |
| Since animal cells don't have cell walls, what do they have that hosts a variety of proteins that help the cell survive? | The complex extracellular matrix |
| What are the three types of intercellular junctions found in animal cells? | Gap junctions, tight junctions, desmosomes -- read about this in 2.6 -- they're important and easy to confuse. don't over think them though. |
| What can be labeled as a fluid mosaic model? | The phospholipid bi-layer that has proteins imbedded into its membrane. -- expand a little more on this one -- 2.7 |
| What does being "amphipathic" mean? | Having hydro-loving (hydrophilic) and hydro-hating (hydrophobic) regions -- this is useful when it comes to the surface membrane of |
| What are the 6 functions of the proteins within the phospholipid bi-layer? | Transport , catalyzing metabolic pathway, Signal transduction - hormonal messaging , Cell-cell recognition, Intercellular joining of adjacent cells with gap or tight junctions, structure support within membrane |
| What is the difference between osmosis and diffusion? | One is the diffusion of particles from high to low using air as its medium and osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane |
| What is tonicity? | Concentration of solutes that cannot cross the membrane relative to the concentration of solutes in the cell |
| What are three different situations a cell can be placed in, in regards to setting | Isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic -- learn the difference in 2.8 IMPORTANT TOPIC |
| What is osmoregulation? | The regulation of water in and out of a cell. |
| How are gated channels activated? | Depends on the presence or absence of an electrical, chemical, or physical stimulus -- more at the end of 2.8 |
| What does active transport help accomplish? | Enables a cell to maintain internal concentrations of small molecules that would otherwise diffuse across the membrane. *hint: enables a cell to maintain internal concentrations of small molecules that would otherwise diffuse across the membrane. |
| What does the sodium potassium pump do -- in a short answer | Exchanges sodium ions for potassium ions across the membrane. -- more in 2.9, I will also go over this in the session tomorrow |
| When a cell is running low of a specific product, what does it do in order to solve its problem. | Hint answer: buy in bulk -- which is basically what receptor mediated endocytosis is |
| This release of energy, breaks down complex molecules | Catabolic Pathway |
| This process is a release of free energy and the products are said to have less energy than the reactants because of this.. | Exergonic reaction |
| This energy is typically thought of as stored energy due to location or structure of an object | Potential energy |
| This process absorbs free energy from it's surroundings during a reaction and the reactants are said to have less energy than the products | Endergonic reaction |
| In short, how can you explain that atp can be renewed? | By the addition of a phosphate group to adp, through a catabolic/exergonic reaction (like cellular respiration) provides the energy needed to regenerate atp |
| This is the synthesis of polymers from monomers in a reaction | Chemical work done -- think chemical work is like gluing something together and it gets bigger but it also can't come unstuck |
| Where does transport work take place in the regeneration of atp? | In the addition of a phosphate stage |
| When your muscles contract or when cells move around with their cilia, what example of work is being demonstrated? | Mechanical work |
| How does ATP help do work in cells? | By energy coupling-- it does this thing where it uses an exergonic reaction to start an endergonic one - - i suggest watching the short videos in the module |
| What type of inhibitor competes to fit into the activation site and then doesn't allow for the reaction to occur? | Competitive inhibitor |
| How can an enzyme lower the activation energy for a reaction? | By being an enzyme, it has the potential to bind to a substrate and let the chemical process occur faster and once it's done it releases the product and is ready once again for new substrates (the reactants) |
| If your enzyme is saturated (meaning that there are no more new bonding cites available to the substrate) what happens to the rate of the reaction and how could you fix the saturation problem? | You could fix the saturation problem by adding more enzymes, that will then help produce more reactions in a quicker time period. The rate of the reaction can only go so quick. It can speed up a reaction but it has a cap to it. |
| First off, what does denature mean in relation to enzymes? and how can you prevent that from happening? | In order for the enzyme to work in general, it needs to be in optimal conditions. If an enzyme was to get denatured, you would need to put it back to its optimal pH level or optimal temperature in order for it to start working again. |
| What is it called when an enzyme is inhibited or stimulated because a regulator is attached to a different activation site | Allosteric regulation |
| What is a useful inhibition that prevents a cell from wasting chemical resources? Where an inhibitor will bind to the activation site and refuses to let the production continue.. | Feedback inhibition -- think of it like its the teacher of the enzyme and it's telling it when to stop producing product in order to not waste it |
| What is a type of inhibitor that leaves the activation site kinda deformed and unable to work as efficiently as it should? | Noncompetitive inhibitors -- the inhibitor is not fighting the substrate to get to the activation site, it said im gonna go find somewhere else to park and mess up your day :) |
| In general, what three things need to occur in order for a full response to be received by the other cell, inn terms of their signaling functions? | Reception, transduction and response --> explain what happens in each step |
| What is a local regulator and what relationship does it have with paracrine signaling? | A local regulator is a 'local' cell that is near other cells that releases a signal of information to the other cells so that they grow and multiply. (growth is usually #1 in effects) |
| A signal is triggered out of a narrow synapse that releases neurotransmitters into the target cell, what is this process called? | Synaptic signaling |
| What kind of receptors can be found on the cell's plasma membrane that TRANSMIT information from the outside environment to the inside? | Transmembrane receptors |
| The g-protein-linked-receptor is found on the membrane but what does it do when a signal molecule binds to the receptor? | When the right signal molecule comes along, it activated the g protein, which in turn can activate enzymes OR if it's a 'GTPase' it will shut the enzyme off or turn it back to its normal inactive state I should say |
| What does a tyrosine-kinase receptor help do? | It sends the signal out to a mass of transduction pathways so that the cells that the pathways are connected to, begin to do what the signal told them to do |
| So, theres a hormone-receptor complex that has a very important job, what is it? | Once activated they are called transcription factors because oh look, they transcript genes into mRNA by using hormones in plants and animals! |
| By using a tyrosine kinase, a phosphorylation cascade can be produced, explain how? | Like a domino effect on surrounding protein kinases and at each step, the signal changes the protein |
| List the two advantages of using the multi-step pathway for the transduction stage | More coordination/regulation between the receptors that receive the signal as well as the signal reaching a multitude of receptors |
| Protein Kinases serve what purpose? | To phophorylate proteins in order to regulate different on goings in cell (function: regulation thru phosphorylation) |
| When a phosphate group is removed from the now activated protein in order to stop production is called what? | Protein PHOSPHATASES -are in charge of- Dephosphorylation |
| After the signal is received at the membrane G-receptor, the signal is sent to the G protein that has GTP. That GTP enables the signal to be transmitted to the ENZYME that is going to transmit that signal to who? | A secondary messenger! COMMON secondary messengers: cyclic AMP (cAMP) and Ca^2+ |
| What are the secondary messengers that are involved in a signal transduction pathway in an animal cell? | Diacylglycerol (DAG) & inositol trisphosphate (IP_3) -- these usually open channels in the ER to export Ca^2+ out |
| Why do different kinds of cells receive the same signal but respond in different way | They have the same dna but each cell express different collection of proteins -- so in turn they respond |
| How is the signal made more efficient? | Through the use of scaffolding proteins and signaling complexes |
| How does Apoptosis work? | The cells that have a destiny to die basically eat themselves up and leave the proteins that they had inside for the other cells but in an inactive form |
| Describe the role of NAD+ in cellular respiration. | It is simply an electron carrier from the citric acid cycle to oxidative phosphorylation |
| What is oxidation? what is being oxidized in the cellular respiration equation? | The loss of an electron in a reaction -- the sugar// glucose (C6H12O6) |
| When a reaction is reduced, what happens to its overall charge? What is being reduced in the cellular respiration eq? | It becomes more negative because it is gaining electrons -- the oxygen (O2) |
| What does oxidative phosphorylation produce? Explain how | ATP -- through the electron transport chain |
| Where does substrate level phosphorylation occur? | Glycolysis and citric acid cycle |
| Where in the cell does glycolysis occur? | In the cytosol |
| During the pyruvate oxidative level, what happens to the pyruvate? Explain why this needs to happen. | It gets turned into acetyl CoA-- the pyruvate itself, in its 3 sugar polymer's, wouldn't get accepted by the citric acid cycle -- Acetyl CoA is more of a reactive molecule than the pyruvate enabling that reaction to occur quicker |
| In what stage of cellular respiration is the most CO2 released? | The citric acid cycle |
| What part of cellular respiration produces the most ATP? | Oxidative phosphorylation -- or the electron transport chain |
| Where does the citric acid cycle happen in the cell? | In the mitochondrion |
| Where is the most CO2 released in the cellular respiration process? | In the citric acid cycle |
| What is used in the E.T.C. to help synthesize ATP besides the transport of electrons? | Chemiosmosis and the inner mitochondrial membrane |
| How many ATP's does the ETC produce directly? | SIKE! the ETC doesn't produce any ATP DIRECTLY, it does however produce around 38 ATP's with the help of other process!! |
| After taking the last step in the electron chain, who is receiving that last electron? | Oxygen will receive that last electron from the chain, which means it is reduced, and it becomes water. |
| How does chemiosmosis help atp synthesis in the ETC? | The stored energy in the hydrogen ions on opposite sides of the membrane create a proton gradient -- this proton gradient is what can be considered to be chemiosmosis -- the proton pump is the power source for the atp synthase (which is a protein complex that allows for atp synthase to occur in the ETC |
| Dig deeper into the proton pump, what is now the result of it being used in the ETC? | The hydrogen gradient that is made from the proton pump creates a proton motive force -- this has the capacity to do work -- it basically pushes the hydrogen through pump over and over again across the membrane. |
| Remember that oxygen that was the last receiver down the ETC? Yeah.. what if it wasnt there? Does cellular respiration stop? | No, it doesn't stop! Fermentation and anaerobic respiration occur at the oxidative phosphorylation level |
| Anaerobic respiration can take place at the glycolysis level but what DOESNT have to present in order for ATP synthesis to keep occurring? | Oxygen-- anaerobic respiration means that oxygen doesn't have to present to pull those electrons down in order for cellular respiration to continue |
| How does fermentation allow for atp synthesis? | It recycles NAD+ by transferring electrons from NADH to a pyruvate -- it basically eliminates the need for glycolysis to occur |
| How does alcohol fermentation differ from lactic acid fermentation? | Alcohol ferm. converts pyruvate in two steps where as lactic acid ferm. reduces pyruvate directly by NADH and doesn't realease CO2 unlike alcohol fermentation where Co2 is released after the first step of reduction |
| What is a facultative anaerobes? | Yeasts and bacteria that can survive using either fermentation or respiration |
| What is an obligate anaerobe? | Animals that carry out only fermentation OR anaerobic respiration -- they also can't survive if oxygen is present. |